Early history

Archaeometric evidence points to brick-building activity in the Sadiya region during the early medieval period. A 2024 study of bricks from Pratimagarh and Padum Pukhuri grouped them with a technological horizon which the authors broadly assign to the seventh–tenth centuries CE.^[8]

The Sadiya region also occupied an important place in the sacred geography represented in the Kalika Purana. The goddess Dikkaravasini, identified by scholars with Tamreswari at Sadiya, marked the eastern end of one of the text's conceptions of Kamarupa. Jae-Eun Shin notes that the Kalika Purana contrasts the region extending from Lalitakanta, near present-day Guwahati, eastwards to Dikkaravasini with the region extending westwards from Lalitakanta to the Karatoya River. The former was represented as the country of the Kiratas (generally identified with the Tibeto-burman populations), covering much of the middle and upper Brahmaputra valley, while the latter was portrayed as a Brahmanical sedentary society inhabited by Brahmins, sages and people of the varna order. Shin interprets this contrast as reflecting the uneven spread of sedentary agriculture and Brahmanical settlement into the middle and upper valley, while noting that both regions were nevertheless conceived as parts of Kamarupa's sacred geography.^[9]

By the thirteenth century, the Sadiya plains had become associated with the Chutia polity.^[10] Based on an inscribed brick bearing the name of Śrī Śrī Lakṣmīnārāyaṇa discovered at Bhismaknagar, Chutia king Lakṣmīnārāyaṇa of the early fifteenth century is assumed to have had his capital in the area; the palaeography of the inscription supports this dating.^[11] The Chutia kingdom rulers exercised power by regulating eastward trade and the movement of people between Assam, Tibet, and southern China.^[12] In 1524, the Mongkawng or Nora general Phukloimung attacked Sadiya from what is today Myitkyina District of Myanmar but was defeated and pushed back.^[13]

Vaishnavism under Chutia rule

Sadiya and the neighbouring Kundila region formed an important eastern locus of Vaishnava activity and memory. Jae-Eun Shin argues that land grants issued by the Chutia rulers indicate the growing presence of Vaishnava Brahmins at the royal court and in rural society. The Dhenukhana copper plate of 1392 records grants to Brahmins whose names and affiliations were predominantly Vaishnava, while the Ghilamara plate of 1401 records a grant to Ravideva, the son of Hari, who was described as a devotee of Vasudeva.^[14]

According to a tradition preserved by Gharmora Satra, two Chutia princes studied at Nabadwip, where they met a Brahmin named Sankarshan—also rendered Sankarisan—of Kannauj. After returning to Sadiya, the elder prince is said to have brought Sankarshan and several occupational families to the capital and established a Vaishnava institution on the bank of the Gharmora River at Sadiya, endowing it with land, attendants and an image of Vishnu. The tradition further holds that Sankarshan's successors remained at Sadiya for five generations and preached among the Chutias, Deoris, Miris and Abors of the surrounding plains and hills before the institution was relocated following the Ahom conquest.^[15] Kundila also appears in the genealogical traditions of later Assamese Vaishnava preceptors. Accounts concerning Padma Ata place his ancestors at Kundila or Kundilnagara before a branch of the family migrated downstream to the Narayanpur region,^[16][17] while Ramananda Dvija's Sri Sri Bansigopal Devar Charitra describes Harivara, an ancestor of Bansigopal Deva, as being “of the Kundil gusthi”.^[18]

Sadiya and Kundil continued to occupy an important place in later Assamese Vaishnava traditions. The Adi Charita states that Sankardev visited Kundilnagara and brought back a Vasudeva image,^[19] while the Sri Thakur Charit relates that Jayadhwaj Singha later had another Vasudeva image brought from Kundil for Damodar Thakur's Narowa Satra, now known as Basudev Than in Dhakuakhana.^[20][a] From the 16th century onward, Sankardev's Rukminiharana became particularly popular in the Sadiya region; its circulation and dramatic performance contributed to the identification of the local landscape with Bhismaka, Rukmini, Vidarbha and Kundina.^[21]

Under Ahoms

After annexing the Chutia kingdom in 1524, Ahom king Suhungmung ordered Phrasenmung Borgohain to stay at Sadiya. Three hundred men were put under his command, three elephants were given to him.^[22] Chutia resistance, however, continued, with uprisings in the Sadiya region in 1527 and 1529.^[23] Following the earlier uprising, in Lakni Rungrao (i.e. 1527 CE)^[24], Chao-Shenglung Kinglun Burhagohain was appointed Thaomunglung Bo-ngen (Sadiyakhowa Gohain)^[25] and given charge of the country extending from Kangkham to the source of the Lohit.^[26] During the renewed Chutia uprising of 1529, Phrasenmung and Thaomung Bangen operated together in the Sadiya region; after the revolt had been suppressed, Suhungmung left both officers in charge of Sadiya.^[27] In the following year, Phrasenmung was summoned from Sadiya to the royal court.^[28] According to the Satsari Assam Buranji, the king had become apprehensive of Phrasenmung's growing power and consequently recalled him from Sadiya, placing the Burhagohain in charge of the region.^[29]

British period

Sadiya was the extreme north-east frontier station of the British Raj, in the Lakhimpur district of Eastern Bengal and Assam regions. On the opposite bank is a railway station that used to connect with the Assam-Bengal line of that era. Sadiya had been garrisoned by detachments of native infantry and military police, and was the base of a chain of outposts. There had a bazaar, to which the hill-men beyond the frontier—Mishmis, Abors, and Khamtis—used to bring down rubber, wax, ivory, and musk, to barter for cotton cloth, salt and metal goods.^[2] In 1943–44 there was a United States Army Air Force (USAAF) field at Sadiya which hosted the 89th Fighter Squadron of the 80th Group, headquartered at Nagaghuli, now Chabua Air Base of the Indian Air Force. Sadiya today serves as one of the district headquarters for the Indian Red Cross Society.

In 1882, Francis Jack Needham was appointed Assistant Political Agent for the British authorities after having served in the region as an assistant Superintendent of Police since 1876. He finally retired from service in 1905 after spending his life exploring above the Brahmaputra River and writing a treatise on the grammar of Miri, Singpho, and Khamti languages. He was awarded the Gill Memorial Medal in 1887 and made a fellow of the Royal Geographical Society in 1889. His main purpose in life was exploration, partly in order to try and discover the source of the Brahmaputra River. His award of the Gill Memorial Medal and F.R.G.S. was for penetrating the Zayul Valley and into Tibet from Assam.

Tamreswari (Kechai-Khati) Temple

This was the most notable among the temples built by Chutia kings. The temple was dedicated to Kechaikhati (literal meaning: eater-of-raw-flesh), a primordial female tribal deity commonly found among other groups.^{[68][69][70][71][72][73]} The other name for Kechaikhaiti is Pishasi meaning "The Elder Daughter".^[74] Scholars assert that Kesaikhaiti is equivalent to the Tai-Khamti female deity Nang Hoo Toungh.^[75] The deity Pishasi or Kechaikhaiti is considered to be the daughter of Gira-Girasi and the younger sister of Pishadema.^[76] The temple was taken care of by the tribal priest known as the Deoris^[77] and was worshipped by the Borgaya Khel of the Deoris.^[78] When the British visited the temple complex, the main temples has disappeared and only a small square structure remained. The wall and doors of the temple were well designed with beautiful works. There were two giant elephant sculptures with silver tusks at the main door of the complex. The walls were made without any mortar and instead used iron dowels and brackets. The whole temple was surrounded with brick walls and on the western wall there was a place for human sacrifice. Although the temple is now completely submerged under marshy lands due to silt deposition in 1959, previous studies show that the main statues of the temple were built of sandstone and granite. The stone inscription found in the temple reads:^[79]

“Shiv-Charan-Prasadat Vridharajatan
Ya-Sri-srimata-Mukta Dharmanarayana
Shri shrimati Digaravasini Ichtaka
Di-Virchit-Prakara-Nivaddha
Krit Agrahainike Saka 1364”

The inscription describes that the walls of the temple have been built by the son Mukta Dharmanarayan of the old king (name not specified) in the Saka year 1364 (1442 AD).

The roof of the Tamreswari temple was originally sheeted with copper as mentioned in the Changrung Phukan Buranji (1711 AD), from which the name is derived. In 1848, when Dalton visited the site, he found a stone structure, but the copper roof was already removed. As per T. Block who visited the site in 1905, this square structure in the corner cannot have been the main building inside the complex and the brick wall evidently enclosed some sort of a grand temple in the center which has disappeared with time. According to S.F. Hannay, the temple complex was as near as possible square with the doorway to the west. There was a substantial brick wall, about 4.5 feet thick rising to the height of 8 feet, on the foundation of rudely cut blocks of sandstone. The entrance of the complex was on the west face, where there had been a stone enclosure and door. The ruins of the gateway which remains include the lintel carved on the edge in a chain of lotus flowers, some ornamented small pillars and an elephant statue. The three blocks forming the doorway, each of 7.5 feet long and 2 feet by 18 inches in girth, along with the blocks of the projecting wall, were reddish porphyritic granite of an adamantine hardness. There was another stone gateway at the southeast corner leading to the stream, in the bed of which are several carved and plain blocks of granite and sandstone.^[80] According to Debala Mitra(1956), the temple was originally Chaturayatana, i.e. having four shrines, built of sandstone and granite and located in the south-east section of the rectangular brick enclosure, prakara roughly measuring 208 ft by 130 ft. The compound wall was 4 feet wide and 8 feet tall and had a stone gateway on the eastern side. In the floods of 1959, due to deposit of silt in the banks of Paya river the structure was completely submerged in the waters.^[81]

Bura-Buri (Gira-Girasi) Than

The Bura-Buri Than is another important temple built by the Chutia kings. It was dedicated to Primordial parents Gira-Girasi or Bura Buri (literal meaning: the-old-ones), which were later sanskritised as Shiva and Sakti.^[82] The two deities are also known as Kundil Mama. The temple was looked upon after by tribal priest called the Deoris and was worshipped by the Dibongia khel of the Deoris.^[83] Gira-Girasi or Bura-Buri are considered to be a wedded pair and are the parents of Pishasi or Kechaikhaiti and Pishadema.^[84] Although the structure has fallen due to natural calamities, the base still remains intact upon which a new temple has been built. The foundation is an octagonal shaped base made of stone with each edge spanning 3.4 meters in length. The temple was built using granite stone and fixed using iron dowels and brackets similar to the ones used in Malinithan and Tamreswari temple. The temple was surrounded by a wall built using bricks of 18–25 cm length and 12–17 cm breadth.^[85]

Bhismaknagar Fort

The Bhismaknagar Fort located in Roing is an important monument built by Chutia kings with the walls of the fort spread over 10 km². The name is derived from Bhishmaka of Vidarbha, the Hindu lineage created for the Chutias in the 16th-century Rukmimi-harana by Srimanta Sankardeva.^[86][87] A brick with the name of the Chutiya king Lakshminarayan indicates that the fort was repaired during the early 15th-century.^[88] The Bhismaknagar central complex extended over an area of 1860 square meters and displays three halls, six ingresses and two extension rooms. There is also a 2 meters high stone wall inside the complex. The architecture of the fort displays medieval culture. While quarrying in the fort, enormous pieces of work of art like potteries, terracotta figurines, terracotta plaques and decorative tiles were recovered.

Fabricated from the burnt bricks gave this fort an impressive and remarkable top view and thus explores the dexterity of people of ancient era. This fort can still be signified as an astonishing work of art.

The city's area is 10 square km. It is surrounded by a wall 4.5 meters high and 6 meters wide made using granite stone (6–9 courses)^[89] and bricks on the east, west and south directions. In the north, the Mishmi hills provided a natural barrier. Although very less excavation has been carried out by the Arunachal government, preliminary excavations have revealed three tanks and two gates in the eastern and western directions.^[90]

The Bhismaknagar central complex extended over an area of 1860 square meters and displays three halls, six ingresses and two extension rooms. There is also a 2 meters high stone wall inside the complex. The architecture of the fort displays the medieval culture. While quarrying the fort the enormous pieces of work of art like potteries, terracotta figurines, terracotta plaques and decorative tiles were preserved.

Rukmini Nagar

In the hills north of Roing lie scattered some old brick structures, mainly between the Chidu and Chimri villages situated at an altitude of about 305 m. The local people, the Idu Mishmi, were desirous of giving an Idu word to the name, and hence it came to be called Rukmini Nati (nati—the Idu word for bricks). An exploration-cum-excavation work, undertaken by the Research Department of the Government of Arunachal Pradesh, to study the ruins, has thrown some light on the antiquities. In course of the progress of work, which continued from January 1973 to April 1974, excavation of two mounds at Chimri, II km from Roing, unearthed two rooms, 10x10 m and 10x12 m respectively built on a slope, at a distance of 14 m from each other. The contents dug out from inside the walls of the rooms were of river-borne materials, a fact which suggests that they were destroyed by floods. The potsherds resembling those of Bhismaknagar in shape, fabric and technique that were unearthed bear ample evidence to the extension to this area of the same culture as of Bhismaknagar.

The other archaeological sites in this area are located (I) near Chidu Inspection Bungalow, (2) at Cheko Nati between Chidu and Chimri and (3) in the hills north of Chimri. No relics, however, could be found at the first two sites, although potsherds at Chidu and brick walls, steps, etc. at Cheko Nati were reported to have been seen earlier. The third site north of Chimri is situated at a high altitude of about 610 m. Not a single brick found there was in alignment, and everything seemed destroyed. The situation of all the four sites on a hilly terrain suitable for defence indicate that they are parts of a single complex representing a fort which extended from Chidu to Chimri. It is probable that the main centre of this complex was at Cheko Nati. Another archaeological site called Duku Limbo is on the left bank of the Dibang at'the foot of Elopa hill. The brickbats found at this site suggest that the Brismaknagar culture had extended to this point.^[91]

Tezu Fort

An old Mud Fort in the Tindolong area, six km from Tezu, was explored in 1972. It falls on the main road from Sadiya to Tezu. The area of the fort, enclosed by earthen ramparts—365.76 m X 350.52 m, is square in shape. The rampart is eight ft high, and equally broad at the top with sloping sides. On both the -inner and outer sides of the rampart run two ditches about 6 m wide. There is a prominent mound, circular in shape (diameter 30.48 m approximately) and about 3 m in height, almost at the centre of the enclosure. The mound appears to be a cavalier for lookout purposes. Some potsherds found at this site are too fragmentary to bear any conclusive evidence. It may, however, be assumed that the Mud Fort linked by the route from Bhismaknagar to Parshuram Kund was probably associated with the early culture that flourished in and around Sadiya and Bhismaknagar.^[92]

The complex seems to represent a defensive mud-fort or redoubt of a modest dimension unlike the fortified city of Bhismakanagara. It was suitable for a small band of soldiers to maintain vigilance against the enemies from their hide-outs inside jungle especially in guerilla warfare, the normal practice in the region. Scarp and counter-scarp provided by the rampart and ditches immensely strengthened the defence in the topography of the country. Strategic considerations are palpable from the situation of the fort on principal route from Sadiya and Bhismaknagar to Parshuram Kund facing the Lohit river, perhaps to keep watch on the enemy from its left bank around Chowkham and hence the position of the mound meant for this purpose nearer the river. The fort has been assigned roughly to a period about the 14th–15th century.^[93]