Non-specific effects of vaccines are effects which go beyond the specific protective effects against the targeted diseases. Non-specific effects from live vaccines can be strongly beneficial by increasing protection against non-targeted infections. This has been shown with childhood mortality in two live attenuated vaccines, BCG vaccine and measles vaccine, through multiple randomized controlled trials. Non-specific effects of non-live vaccination may be detrimental, increasing overall mortality at least 30% by some estimates, despite providing protection against the target disease. Observational studies suggest that diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis vaccine (DTP) may be highly detrimental, and although a WHO report described such studies as at high risk of bias, the direction of such bias was not predicted; although the conclusions have failed to replicate in some similar studies conducted by independent groups, randomized controlled trials (RCTs) provide additional evidence that vaccines have potent nonspecific effects.